SEX AND SOCIETY: Studies in the Social Psychology of Sex -  by William I. Thomas - HQ Full Book.

*Sex & Society: Studies in the Social Psychology of Sex* by William I. Thomas offers a pioneering analysis of how sex and gender differences shape society through a social-psychological lens. Written in the early 20th century, the book investigates the impact of biological sex differences on human behavior, social roles, and the cultural evolution of society. Thomas delves into a variety of topics that explore how sexuality and gender roles are intertwined with social norms, morality, and cultural development in both primitive and modern societies. This work is notable for its early exploration of gender and society from both scientific and anthropological perspectives, presenting a view of human behavior as a product of biological impulses shaped by social environments. 
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Here’s a breakdown of each chapter and its main themes:

1. Organic Differences in the Sexes
This foundational chapter examines the physiological and biological differences between men and women, and how these affect their respective behaviors and roles in society. Thomas argues that biological differences are at the root of distinct social roles for men and women. For instance, he links physical strength and reproductive capacity to evolutionary roles, with men being hunters and providers and women focused on childbirth and nurturing. He suggests that these organic differences have influenced the development of societies and established a base for gendered roles, which continue to persist in modern cultures.

2. Sex and Primitive Social Control
In this chapter, Thomas explores how early human societies used sexual behavior as a means of social control. By examining various tribal societies, he shows that rules regarding marriage, sexual relations, and reproduction served as tools for maintaining social order. He discusses the concept of taboo, especially surrounding sexual conduct, as a means of preserving harmony within the group. This social control of sex, he argues, contributed to establishing authority figures and moral codes, which later evolved into more complex forms of governance and religious systems.

3. Sex and Social Feeling
This chapter examines how sexual attraction and reproductive behaviors contribute to social bonds and group cohesion. Thomas argues that the emotions associated with sex, such as love, jealousy, and loyalty, are instrumental in forming strong social bonds. He explores the psychological aspects of love and attraction, seeing them as essential components in the foundation of society. Additionally, he considers how these feelings give rise to different social behaviors and how the family unit, driven by emotional and sexual bonds, forms the building block of larger societal structures.

4. Sex and Primitive Industry
Thomas here discusses how early industries and labor roles were divided along gender lines, a division often influenced by physical capabilities and reproductive functions. Men typically engaged in hunting, warfare, and construction, while women were more involved in gathering, food preparation, and child-rearing. He examines how these labor divisions led to the establishment of different skills and cultural expectations for each sex, which contributed to the evolution of specialized tasks, skills, and eventually, modern industry and labor markets. Thomas emphasizes that while these roles may have originated from biological differences, they later evolved into culturally enforced divisions.

5. Sex and Primitive Morality
In this chapter, Thomas discusses how early moral codes were largely concerned with regulating sexual behavior to avoid social discord. The chapter explores the role of sexual conduct in the formation of ethical principles within early societies, including ideas of fidelity, chastity, and modesty. Thomas suggests that these codes, initially meant to regulate behavior within small, kinship-based communities, laid the groundwork for more complex moral and legal systems that addressed interpersonal and community welfare. This regulation of sex-related behavior eventually transformed into broader systems of morality and law that affected all aspects of social life.

6. The Psychology of Exogamy
Thomas examines the psychological and social foundations of exogamy, the practice of marrying outside one’s social group. He suggests that exogamy originated as a way to avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity within small tribes. However, as societies grew, exogamy also served to forge alliances between different groups, thereby promoting peace and trade. Thomas explores how the psychology behind exogamy reflects a blend of biological imperatives and social strategies, as well as how these practices contributed to the development of more complex social organizations.

7. The Psychology of Modesty and Clothing
In this chapter, Thomas examines the evolution of modesty and the social significance of clothing, proposing that these behaviors are influenced by both biological impulses and social conditioning. He argues that modesty, initially rooted in reproductive instincts and self-preservation, evolved into a cultural standard that varies widely between societies. Thomas suggests that clothing, beyond its practical function, became a social symbol, conveying messages about status, gender, and individual morality. He links the psychology of modesty to larger societal themes, including social hierarchy, gender roles, and personal identity.

8. The Adventitious Character of Woman
Thomas presents the idea that women’s roles and characteristics in society are often shaped by social expectations rather than solely by biology. He critiques the ways in which societal norms have defined women’s behavior and identity, often limiting them to roles such as mothers, caregivers, or subordinates. He argues that women’s societal roles are largely adventitious—i.e., influenced by external conditions—rather than an innate reflection of their true capabilities. This chapter is Thomas’s commentary on how gender roles are socially constructed and maintained by cultural, rather than natural, factors.

9. The Mind of Woman and the Lower Races
In this controversial chapter, Thomas explores perceived intellectual differences between men and women and draws parallels between women and so-called “lower races,” reflecting the biased views of his time. He suggests that women, like members of non-European races, have different ways of thinking and interacting due to both biological and cultural conditioning. He examines how these supposed differences have been historically used to justify societal hierarchies and limitations on women’s autonomy. While his perspective is dated and reflects the racial and gender biases of his era, it provides insight into how early social psychology addressed issues of intellect and societal role.
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Overall Summary
*Sex & Society* represents an ambitious attempt to analyze the role of sex and gender in shaping human societies. While Thomas’s observations reflect the scientific and cultural views of the early 1900s, his work laid the groundwork for further research in social psychology, anthropology, and gender studies. Each chapter explores how sex and gender contribute to the organization and evolution of societies, with topics ranging from primitive social control mechanisms to the psychology behind exogamy, modesty, and clothing.

Thomas’s exploration of social psychology presents a framework for understanding how societies construct gendered identities and roles through cultural norms, labor division, moral codes, and social expectations. Though some ideas are outdated, his work offers a historical perspective on the study of sex and society, highlighting the intersections between biology, culture, and psychology that continue to influence contemporary discussions on gender, sexuality, and social roles.

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